History
T-90/90S first appeared in 1993. It was not however a good time for Russian tanks. Iraqi T-72s badly underperformed in the Desert Storm, and even modern M-84 suffered badly in the Yugoslav wars. T-80BV was also blasted for its performance in Chechenya. Because of this, large export orders for modernized T-72 and T-80U MBTs failed to materialize.
T-90 tank itself is a further development of the T-72B Main Battle Tank. It was developed at the Kartsev/Venediktov Bureau, “Vagonka” at Nizhnyi Tagil. Tank was officially adopted by the Russian Government in 1992 and the initial production began in the same year. In 1993 tank was adopted by the Russian MoD, and low-rate series production began in 1994.
Tank was shown outside Russia for the first time in March 1997, when it was demonstrated at Abu Dhabi. By September 1997, some 107 T-90 tanks had been produced, located in the Siberian Military District. By mid-1996 some 107 T-90s had gone into service in the Far Eastern Military District. In 2007, there were about 334 T-90 tanks serving in the Russian Ground Forces’ 5th Guards Tank Division, stationed in the Siberian Military District, and seven T-90 tanks in the Navy.
The tank is the last mass-produced Russian MBT, and was considered to be among the ten best tanks in the world. T-90 is the most successful export tank on the market, being operated by Algeria (572), Azerbaijan (200 delivered, some were lost), Iraq (75), Syria (40), Turkmenistan (40), Uganda (44), and Venezuela (50~100). India is the largest export operator, having ordered 1 657 T-90S tanks. Indian order included 248 tanks delivered from Russia, 409 tanks assembled locally from knock-down kits and another 1 000 tanks license-produced in India. Some T-90s have been lost in Ukraine, with a number captured and pressed into service against their former owners.
Basic Design
First unclassified information regarding the T-90 began appearing in the defense-related press in Spring 1993. According to reports published at the time, the tank incorporated various components of both the T-72 series and the T-80U Premium tank. More details were revealed with the publication of an article in the October 1993 issue of PANZER magazine from Japan. Photos revealed different reactive armor and hull skirting armor carried by the T-90/T-90S and T-80U. Two commander cupolas are different, with T-90/T-90S commander cupola being similar to that carried by the T-64B and the diesel-powered T-80UD. As a result, the tank commander in the T-90/T-90S can operate his commander’s weapon station with his hatch closed. The tank commander on the T-80U must open his hatch and expose himself to fire the machine gun.
T-90 uses the well-proven chassis of T-72 with turret and weapons systems of T-80U. By 1997 at the latest it was well known that at least three variants of the tank existed: T-90, T-90S and T-90SK. The T-90E was also referenced, but it is possible this was in fact a T-72BM. Thus, the design was split into T-90 (for domestic use only), T-90S (export version) and the T-90SK (command variant).
Driver is located in the hull’s front under driver’s hatch, in a separate compartment. He has wide view optical system. Tank’s commander and gunner are located in the turret, in the combat compartment. Commander is placed to the right of the main gun while gunner is placed to the left. Thanks to the cariousel autoloader, T-90 has a very small turret and overall low profile.
Defenses
In March 1993., an article in Jane’s Defence Weekly described a tank designated T-90E. Included was a photograph of a new T-72 variant fitted with reactive armor similar to that carried by the T-80U Premium Tank. This was actually not T-90 tank, but rather T-72BM, which while relatively capable served only as a starting point for the T-90/T-90S.
Some details about T-90 were revealed with publication of an article in October 1993 issue of PANZER magazine from Japan. In the first photo, T-90/T-90S is seen conducting a firepower demonstration or gunnery exercise alongside T-80U. In the second photo T-90 is a part of static display alongside T-80U. From photos it could be seen that T-90 carried different reactive and hull skirting armor compared to T-80U. Commander’s cupolas were also different. Tank commander in T-90/90S can operate his commander’s weapons station with hatch closed, while the tank commander on T-80U has to open the hatch and expose himself to fire the machine gun.
Much like T-80/T-80U, the T-90/T-90S is fitted with advanced integral reactive armor on the front slope or glacis plate. The T-90/T-90S armor however is slightly different in design, its wind sensor mast clearly evident, as is the reactive armor on tank turret’s front. Both the reactive armor and the new hull skirting are clearly visible on the T-90 as opposed to T-80.
T-90 came with fully automated Defensive Aids Suite (DAS). The suite, known as the TSHU-1-7 SHTORA, was mounted on the tank’s turret. The three primary components of the SHTORA 1 are the two infrared jammers/emitters, the laser warning receivers, and the grenade launchers. All three are easily seen on photos, and presented the first fully developed countermeasure system of its kind in the world.
T-90 is in fact the first tank that had been designed with a “three tier” protection system. Reactive armor easily countered legacy single-warhead antitank weapons, but itself was in turn countered by dual- and triple-warhead antitank weapons. For this reason it was decided that additional layer of defenses was needed, this one focused on minimizing the possibility of the tank being hit in the first place.
Basic armor itself is the composite/laminate armor, which is present on the turret front and the front slope or glacis armor. This armor, which covers the 60 degree frontal arc, consists of layers of steel and ceramic plates with a controlled deformation section. Armor is reinforced by ERA (Explosive Reactive Armor). The ERA on T-90 is the second-generation ERA designated as Kontakt-5. This armor consists of eight sections in upper hull’s frontal armor and three anti-cumulation sections on each side, as well as seven blocks and one container built-in to the turret. Twenty more containers are placed on the turret’s roof. It allegedly significantly increases protection against not just shaped charge weapons but kinetic penetrators as well – it was stated to be capable of increasing T-55s protection from 200 mm RHA against KE projectiles to 480 mm RHA. The T-90M variant has improved Relikt ERA in place of Kontakt-5. In addition, the tank features net armor on the lower part of its turret and slat armor at its rear to improve defenses against rocket-propelled grenades by disrupting the fusing of the warhead.
The third tier of T-90s protection is the TSHU-17 SHTORA 1 (meaning a shutter or a blind) Defensive Aids Suite. SHTORA was deveoped by the Russian Mobile Vehicle Engineering Institute in St. Petersburg. The system consists of two to four laser warning receivers (LWR), two wide-band infrared (IR) jammers/emitters to the each side of main gun, special grenades fired from the tank’s standard turret grenade launchers, and a central computer. T-90 has at least two sets of LWRs on the turret roof (above the main gun and above the turret storage box on the left side of the turret) and two IR jammer/emitters (one on each side of the main gun). According to published reports, the system is designed to counter semiautomatic, command to line-of-sight (SACLOS) antitank guided missiles and laser-guided projectiles, reducing the probability of hit by three to five times.
Two IR jammers / emitters are used to jam the incoming missile, causing it to lose contact with the missile’s IR locator or the beacon. Without receiving the correct guidance instructions from its launcher, the missile simply flies into the ground short of the intended target. The two IR jammer/emitters are permanently turned on while the tank is in combat. Against a laser-guided projectile, the tank’s LWRs detect the projectile’s guidance beam. Once the beam is detected, te turret is automatically oriented in the direction of the laser beam and smoke grenades fired from the tank’s grenade launchers. These deploy aerosole smoke screen which obscures the targeted tank from the source of the laser beam. The smoke screen deploys within three seconds and lasts for around 20 seconds, and can deploy to distance of 55 meters. A bank of six 81 mm grenade launchers is located to each side of the turret.
Shtora had apparently proven itself against the US TOW-1 and Chinese HJ-8 missiles used by Syrian militants, and should also be effective against the HOT and MILAN missiles as well as the Soviet KONKURS. The system is ineffective against the top-attack missiles, and is considered outdated. This also makes it next to useless in an urban warfare environment.
This three-tier protection system improves T-90s protection and survivability to a level well above any earlier Soviet tank. A T-90M captured in September 2022. was found to have been outfitted with Nakidka radar-absorbent material which is said to reduce the vehicle’s infrared, thermal, and radar signatures and is used to defend the tank against guided missiles.
Armament
Main Gun
The firepower of T-90 is based upon the 2A46A1 Rapira 3 125 mm smoothbore main gun. When first introduced it was capable of using then-traditional HVAPFSDS, HEAT-FS and FRAG-HE ammunition as well as newly introduced rounds. New rounds were the new HVAPFSDS round called 3BM32 which incorporated depleted uranium long-rod penetrator, and two new HEAT-FS rounds. First new HEAT-FS round was 3BK29 with hardened nose which could reportedly push through the reactive armor and still penetrate at least 300 mm of armor angled at 60 degrees (this would come out to 364,4 mm of vertical armor). The second new HEAT-FS round was the 3BK27, a tandem round with three HEAT charges. First charge would activate the reactive armor, second would initiate penetration of basic armor and third would finish it. It has since been superseded by the 3BK31 “Start” which uses triple charge HEAT to achieve penetration up to 800 mm of RHA. Likewise, APFSDS has been superseded by new tungsten-alloy APFSDS “Vacuum 2” which is capable of penetrating 800 – 1 000 mm of armor at 2 000 meters.
The second type of ammunition available to the T-90/T-90S (as well as the T-72S MBT, T-72B MBT, T-72BM, T80U, and T-80UD) is the 9K120/ 9M119 laser beam-riding antitank guided missile system. NATO designation AT-11 SNIPER, the system includes two slightly different main gun-launched missiles. The SVIR missile cannot be fired on the move and is used by T-72 variants, while the more modern REFLEKS missile can be fired on the move and is used by the T-72BM, T-80U, T-80UD and T-90/90S. The two-piece missiles are loaded by the tank’s automatic loading system and have a maximum effective range of 5 000 meters, with a maximum armor penetration of approximately 900 mm. Missile can be used against tanks as well as low-flying helicopters, and also has anti-infantry high explosive variant. Probability of hit is likely around 50% against the static target, despite claimed 70% probability of hit at 5 000 meters.
Tank’s autoloader is of carousel design similar to that of T-72 and carries 22 ready-to-fire rounds of ammunition. Remaining 20 rounds are stored in the fighting compartment, which means that detonation of on-board ammunition is likely once the tank is penetrated. Carousel design also makes it unable to fire Russia’s newest and larger sabot rounds. Gun has two-axis stabilization and effective range of 2 – 3 km during the day and 2 – 2,6 km during the night when using APFSDS round. Rate of fire is 7 – 8 rounds per minute for T-90S.
T-90M has an improved 2A46M-4 gun. This is said to be 15-20% more accurate than the standard 2A46 and has maximum range of 4 – 5 km, comparable to German Leopard 2.
A thermal shield jacket protects the tube of the main gun. The design of the gun tube and the breech ring allow the tube to be removed from the turret and replaced without dismantling the whole gun. Gun is stabilized in two axes.
Fire Control System
Another key component is the fire control system. The T-90S uses the 1A4GT integrated fire control system (IFCS), which is automatic but features a manual override for the commander. The IFCS contains the gunner’s 1A43 day fire control system, gunner’s TO1-KO1 thermal imaging sight with a target identification range of 1.2km to 1.5km and commander’s PNK-S sight.
A 1G46 day sight / rangefinder with missile guidance channel, 2E42-4 armament stabiliser, 1V528 ballistic computer and DVE-BS wind gauge comprise the gunner’s 1A43 day FCS.
A TKN-4S (Agat-S) day / night sight, which has identification ranges of 800m (day) and 700m (night) are included in the commander’s PNK 4S sight.
The driver is equipped with a TVN-5 infrared night viewer.
Necessary target pointing data is provided by ballistic computer 1B528-1 with input information sensors. Overall fire control system allows to defeat targets at day-night conditions by artillery fire in movement and guided missiles – from short stops.
Fire control system and thermal imaging systems have displayed high degrees of sensitivity to heat, suffering significant performance issues and failures during summer tests in India.
Machine Guns
A coaxial 7,62 mm PKT machine gun is mounted to the right side of the main gun while 12,7 mm air defense gun is mounted atop the turret, at the commander’s cupola. This gun can be used against both the ground and airborne targets.
Mobility
Mobility characteristics have been significantly improved compared to previous Russian diesel-powered tanks, but are hardly revolutionary. T-90 uses the T-72BM as a basis, including the turret, the hull and the suspension system. The tank is powered by the Model V-84 840-hp diesel engine that provides a power-to-weight ratio of 18.06 hp/ton and a maximum road speed of 60 kph. Engine has seven forward and one reverse gear. The operating range of the tank is 550 – 650 km on the road and its combat weight is 46,5 tons. T-90A and T-90S have 1 000 hp engine while the engine for T-90M and T-90MS has power of 1 103 hp.
T-90S is capable of 35 to 40 kph in all terrain conditions. It can cross a trench of 2,8 meters, and climb a vertical obstacle of 0,85 meters. The T-90S is capable of deep fording to a depth of 1,5 meters without preparation and 5 meters using a snorkel. Preparation for deep fording takes 20 minutes. It can also be fitted with KMT-7 mine clearing equipment.
Variants
- T-90K: Command version of the T-90 adopted in 1994. It was fitted with additional radios and had navigation equipment.
- T-90E: Export version of T-90 MBT. It is powered by a 1000 hp V-92 engine, and lacks the SHTORA system.
- T-90A: Russian army version with welded turret, V-92S2 engine and ESSA or Thales thermal viewer. Sometimes called T-90 Vladimir.
- T-90S: Export version of T-90A.
- T-90SK: Command version of the T-90S. It differs in radio and navigation equipment and Ainet remote-detonation system for HEF rounds.
- T-90S “Bhishma”: modified T-90S in Indian service. It lacks Shtora-1 countermeasures system, but retains the 9K119M Refleks ATGM capability. It is also powered by the 1 000 hp diesel engine.
- T-90SA is an export version tailored for Algeria. Letter “A” in the designation denotes “Algeria”. Algeria ordered 185 tank. Deliveries commenced in 2005. The second batch was for 187 tanks and third batch was for over 200 tanks. So Algeria operates a total of 572 T-90SA tanks. This variant is also in service with Turkmenistan (40 units).
- T-90M: Upgraded version featuring new explosive reactive armour (ERA), new 1,250 PS (920 kW) engine, new improved turret and composite armour, new gun, new thermal imaging Catherine-FC from THALES, an enhanced environmental control system supplied by Israel’s Kinetics Ltd for providing cooled air to the fighting compartment, integrated tactical system, satellite navigation and others.
- T-90AM: Designation for T-90A tanks brought up to T-90M standard.
- T-90MS: New modernised (M) version of the export tank T-90S, with a 1130HP engine, a PNM Sosna-U gunner view, a 7.62 mm turret UDP T05BV-1 RWS, GLONASS, inertial navigation systems and new explosive reactive armour (ERA). A new removable turret bustle is included, which provides storage for eight additional rounds. T-90MS is ready for serial production.
- BREM-1M armored recovery vehicle. It has been developed to support the export T-90S main battle tanks.
- MTU-90 armored bridgelayer. It was designed to launch bridge across trenches and water obstacles in combat conditions.
- IMR-3 armored engineer vehicle. Initially it was referred as the IMR-2MA. It carries the same equipment as the IMR-2 series vehicles. However it uses chassis of the T-90, rather than T-72 tank. Its production commenced in 1996. Deliveries to the Russian Army commenced in 1999.
- BMR-3M mine clearing vehicle.
- UBIM armored engineer vehicle. It was designed to replace a whole host of different older machines, such as armored engineer vehicles and tracklayers. It can also perform functions of mine clearing and armored recovery vehicles. This machine is operated by a crew of 2 and can carry 3 engineers, sappers or dismounts. It is powered by a V-92S2F engine, developing 1 130 hp. The UBIM was first publicly revealed in 2018.
Technical Data
| Country of Origin | Russia |
| Entered Service | 1993 |
| Crew | 3 |
| DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHT | |
| Length (gun forward) | 9,53 m |
| Hull length | 6,86 m |
| Width | 3,46 m |
| Height | 2,23 m |
| Weight | 46,5 t |
| ARMAMENT | |
| Main gun | 125 mm smoothbore |
| ATGW | 9M119M Refleks |
| Machine guns | 1 x 7,62 mm, 1 x 12,7 mm |
| Elevation | -6 to +14 degrees |
| Traverse | 360 degrees |
| AMMUNITION | |
| Main gun | 43 rounds |
| Machine guns | 2000 x 7,62 mm, 300 x 12,7 mm |
| MOBILITY | |
| Engine | V-84MS diesel engine |
| Engine power | 840 hp |
| Maximum road speed | 60 kph |
| Range | 550 km |
| MANEUVERABILITY | |
| Gradient | 60% |
| Side slope | 40% |
| Vertical step | 0,8 m |
| Trench | 2,85 m |
| Fording | 1,2 m |
| Fording (with preparation) | 5 m |
Operational History
T-90 tanks were first used in the Second Chechen War during the invasion of Dagestan in August 1999. Dagestan lay at the shores of the Caspian Sea to which Chechenya was bordered to the west. The First Chechen War was a humiliation for Russia, with the Chechen separatist victory and withdrawal of Russian forces following the cease fire. In this conflict, the T-80 in particular had shown its limitations in urban combat and T-72 similarly performed particularly poorly. Russian tankers also proved ill-trained for the environment, and infantry support was insufficient. T-90, luckily for it, was not widely if at all used in the war and thus preserved its reputation.
On 7th August 1999 the Islamic International Peacekeeping Brigade invaded the Russian republic of Dagestan to begin the Second Chechen War which would last until the 28 September. Having learned from the poor performance of T-80, Russians sent T-90s into the war with missile defense system and the infantry support. Armored protection was deemed excellent as the tank sustained direct hits with no catastrophic losses. The Second Chechen War ended with Russian victory and 2500 enemy combatants killed to Russian 279.
Performance in Ukraine
At the time of writing of this article, Russia had lost at least 85 T-90 tanks. Of those, 43 were the advanced T-90M variant, available only in very limited numbers – some 100 were said to have been around in May 2022. T-90 has been hardly a game changer in Ukraine. In fact, it has performed no better than any other T-72 variant, with loss rate approximately equal to T-72 itself (around 30%).
Firstly, performance of any tank is dependant primarily on the crew and how good their training is. This is especially important in urban areas, where tank’s cross-country maneuvering and long-range engagement capabilities simply cannot be utilized. And majority of fighting in Ukraine was done in the urban areas. As a result, mechanized and combined arms tactics are far more important than capabilities of any single weapons system.
This also means that T-90s SHTORA had proven of very limited utility. It is a system designed over 30 years ago to protect against SACLOS and other line-of-sight weapons and missiles. It has no ability to protect the tank against the top-attack missiles and other newer systems. Such weapons as well as munitions fired from elevated positions will easily evade the area covered by Shtora sensors.
This is a problem since T-90 still bears many of T-72s flaws, being of essentially the same basic design. Turns out, throwing more garbage onto a tank and making the number bigger does not fix the fundamental issues. T-72 was designed in the era where threats were far different and far less heterogenous in nature. It was not designed to face top-attack munitions, loitering munitions and other new weapons systems. T-90 did fix some of the T-72s flaws – namely by moving the reserve ammunition from the fighting compartment to a dedicated ammunition bustle. But it still has the fundamental flaw of the carousel autoloader which cannot have blowout panels and thus vents into the fighting compartment, leading to turret itself being blown off.
Another major flaw that the T-90 inherited from the T-72 is incredibly slow reverse speed of only four kilometers per hour. This means that the tank is slower to reverse out of position if it has to escape, and has to turn around – exposing weaker rear armor – in order to withdraw. This might be the most significant technical problem with the T-90 design,
The biggest issue however is likely not the tank itself but the training. Russian conscripts receive 1 – 2 months of basic training and then 4 – 6 months of their specialized skills. Most of the training is actually done within the unit, meaning that volunteer soldiers become far more experienced than the conscripts.
Defense Issues 